Nicotine is the primary psychoactive compound in tobacco and is increasingly common in alternative forms such as pouches, gum, and vapes. It has long been associated with addiction, cardiovascular ailments, and cancer risk. Modern nicotine products are increasingly popular among young people, largely due to increases in vaping and the use of non-combustible tobacco products [1].
In recent years, the role of nicotine in sports and athletic performance has been the topic of interest and controversy [2,3]. Some athletes, especially those in endurance sports and weight-class competitions, have experimented with it for its alleged benefits, such as heightened focus [4-6], reduced fatigue, and appetite suppression [7].
This article will explore the current evidence for nicotine’s impact on endurance, exercise recovery, and overall performance.
What Is Nicotine?
Nicotine is a stimulant alkaloid naturally found in tobacco leaves. Although traditionally consumed through smoking, it is now more commonly consumed with smokeless products like nicotine gum, patches, lozenges, nasal sprays, oral pouches, and buccal troches. Many of these are popular with athletes [2], partly due to the lack of harmful combustion byproducts. At the time of writing, nicotine is not banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency.
Nicotine exerts its effects primarily by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain, triggering the release of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (also known as adrenaline).
This action in the brain results in a cocktail of physiological effects, including increased alertness, elevated heart rate, reduced pain perception, suppressed appetite, and improved cognition. Some of these effects may appeal to athletes seeking a competitive edge.
Prevalence of Nicotine Use in Sport
Research suggests that nicotine use among athletes, especially in professional team and strength sports, ranges from 25 to 50% [2]. A study of around 60,000 anti-doping urine samples obtained during competition between 2012-2020 indicated that nearly one in five were positive for nicotine, with the prevalence higher in team sports [8].
The rationale athletes provide for the use of nicotine stems from the belief that nicotine or nicotine-containing substances are ergogenic by preventing dry mouth, helping to control weight, improving reaction time and concentration, and helping relaxation [8,9].
Nicotine and Endurance: A Double-Edged Sword?
The stimulatory properties of nicotine may offer short-term benefits, but these can be accompanied by drawbacks at higher doses or with prolonged use.
The major mechanisms are the stimulation of catecholamine (e.g., adrenaline) release, which promotes alertness and may delay perceived fatigue during aerobic activities. Some evidence suggests nicotine may reduce perceived exertion [10] and muscle soreness, potentially allowing athletes to push harder for longer. Endurance sports often demand sustained mental effort, and nicotine's action on the central nervous system could potentially sharpen reaction time and focus, particularly in time trials or long-distance races.
In terms of limitations and risks, nicotine causes blood vessels to constrict, potentially reducing blood flow to working muscles, which can impair oxygen delivery and ultimately diminish endurance performance. Nicotine may also impair the body’s ability to dissipate heat, increasing the risk of overheating during endurance events [11].
At present, the research supporting a direct improvement in endurance performance from nicotine use is limited and requires further study, largely due to varying forms of administration, small sample sizes, and ethical limitations on testing [3].
How Does Nicotine Affect Recovery?
Nicotine's vasoconstrictive properties may impair blood flow and nutrient delivery to muscle tissue post-exercise, potentially slowing the recovery process. It may also increase oxidative stress, compounding damage to muscle tissue.
Performance Beyond Endurance Sports: Reaction, Strength, and Skill Activities
While the endurance-enhancing potential of nicotine remains debatable, it may offer cognitive performance benefits in sports that require swift decision-making, fine motor skills, or sustained attention.
In a study of college archers given 2 mg of nicotine, simulated archery performance was increased over that of a placebo by increasing cognitive function and stimulating the sympathetic adrenergic system [12].
In a separate study of thirteen healthy male non-smoker baseball players, nicotine gum exhibited enhanced motor reaction times, cognitive function, and baseball-hitting performance over a placebo [5]. Nicotine could therefore induce changes in endocrine and sympathetic nerve activity and enhance cognitive function and baseball-hitting performance.
These studies suggest that nicotine might be beneficial for skill and reaction-based activities. However, these benefits need to be balanced against the addictive potential of nicotine, as well as the negative consequences of chronic use on sleep and anxiety [13].
The Form of Nicotine Is Important
The type of nicotine consumed is a vital point to consider, as not all delivery methods are created equal. Smoking tobacco products is unequivocally harmful due to the presence of compounds such as carbon monoxide, tar, and thousands of other toxic constituents that impair lung function and overall health (including athletic performance) [14,15].
Nicotine-only products such as gum, pouches, patches, and the still contentious vaping practice deliver nicotine without the harmful byproducts of combustion. With that said, vaping and oral nicotine pouches have their own health concerns concerning long-term use, oral health, and unknown additives [16-18].
At Troscriptions, we use buccal troches, which are a slow-release delivery system that allows the ingredients to be gradually absorbed into the bloodstream through the cheek mucosa. Blue Cannatine, Troscriptions' signature nootropic, contains 1 mg of nicotine in a full buccal troche. This is in contrast to cigarettes, which contain anywhere from 6 to 28 mg of nicotine and give you an instant hit.
As a result, when using Blue Cannatine, the risk of addiction is very low as long as you follow the directions on the box and have less than 4 mg of nicotine per day. Additionally, the nicotine we use is pharmaceutical grade and synthetically made in a lab, so it does not contain any impurities or additives.
Conclusion
The idea of using nicotine as a legal ergogenic aid is gaining traction among some athletes, but the current body of evidence offers little support for its use as a reliable or safe performance enhancer. While there may be short-term benefits for cognitive performance, pain perception, and alertness, these must be weighed against drawbacks such as cardiovascular strain, impaired recovery, potential addiction, and long-term health risks.
For endurance athletes, the jury is still out. The marginal gains are likely minimal and inconsistent, especially compared to well-established strategies like proper training, nutrition, hydration, and sleep.
Ultimately, athletes should be cautious. Nicotine is a powerful psychoactive substance with complex effects on the body. While it's legal and widely accessible, its role in sports performance remains unclear and potentially harmful, especially with chronic and improper use.
References
[1] K.A. East, J.L. Reid, V.L. Rynard, D. Hammond, Trends and Patterns of Tobacco and Nicotine Product Use Among Youth in Canada, England, and the United States From 2017 to 2019, Journal of Adolescent Health 69 (2021) 447–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.02.011.
[2] T. Mündel, Nicotine: Sporting Friend or Foe? A Review of Athlete Use, Performance Consequences and Other Considerations, Sports Med 47 (2017) 2497–2506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0764-5.
[3] R. Johnston, K. Doma, M. Crowe, Nicotine effects on exercise performance and physiological responses in nicotine‐naïve individuals: a systematic review, Clin Physio Funct Imaging 38 (2018) 527–538. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpf.12443.
[4] G. Valentine, M. Sofuoglu, Cognitive Effects of Nicotine: Recent Progress, CN 16 (2018) 403–414. https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x15666171103152136.
[5] S.-H. Fang, C.-C. Lu, H.-W. Lin, K.-C. Kuo, C.-Y. Sun, Y.-Y. Chen, W.-D. Chang, Acute Effects of Nicotine on Physiological Responses and Sport Performance in Healthy Baseball Players, IJERPH 19 (2022) 515. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010515.
[6] S.J. Heishman, B.A. Kleykamp, E.G. Singleton, Meta-analysis of the acute effects of nicotine and smoking on human performance, Psychopharmacology 210 (2010) 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1848-1.
[7] A. Schwartz, N. Bellissimo, Nicotine and energy balance: A review examining the effect of nicotine on hormonal appetite regulation and energy expenditure, Appetite 164 (2021) 105260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105260.
[8] T. Zandonai, F. Botrè, M.G. Abate, A.M. Peiró, T. Mündel, Should We be Concerned with Nicotine in Sport? Analysis from 60,802 Doping Control Tests in Italy, Sports Med 53 (2023) 1273–1279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01819-y.
[9] A.M. Kasper, G.L. Close, Practitioner observations of oral nicotine use in elite sport: You snus you lose, European Journal of Sport Science 21 (2021) 1693–1698. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2020.1859621.
[10] P. Bartík, P. Šagát, J. Pyšná, L. Pyšný, J. Suchý, Z. Trubák, D. Petrů, The Effect of High Nicotine Dose on Maximum Anaerobic Performance and Perceived Pain in Healthy Non-Smoking Athletes: Crossover Pilot Study, IJERPH 20 (2023) 1009. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021009.
[11] N.E. Moyen, M.J. Barnes, B.G. Perry, N. Fujii, T. Amano, N. Kondo, T. Mündel, Nicotine exacerbates exertional heat strain in trained men: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study, Journal of Applied Physiology 137 (2024) 421–428. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00403.2024.
[12] B.-L. Hung, L.-J. Chen, Y.-Y. Chen, J.-B. Ou, S.-H. Fang, Nicotine supplementation enhances simulated game performance of archery athletes, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 18 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-021-00413-9.
[13] N. Singh, A. Wanjari, A.H. Sinha, Effects of Nicotine on the Central Nervous System and Sleep Quality in Relation to Other Stimulants: A Narrative Review, Cureus (2023). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.49162.
[14] T.L. Conway, T.A. Cronan, Smoking, exercise, and physical fitness, Preventive Medicine 21 (1992) 723–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-7435(92)90079-w.
[15] C.-L. Lee, W.D. Chang, The effects of cigarette smoking on aerobic and anaerobic capacity and heart rate variability among female university students, IJWH (2013) 667. https://doi.org/10.2147/ijwh.s49220.
[16] J.S. Izquierdo-Condoy, P. Naranjo-Lara, E. Morales-Lapo, M.R. Hidalgo, A. Tello-De-la-Torre, E. Vásconez-Gonzáles, C. Salazar-Santoliva, V. Loaiza-Guevara, W. Rincón Hernández, D.A. Becerra, M.B.D. González, A. López-Cortés, E. Ortiz-Prado, Direct health implications of e-cigarette use: a systematic scoping review with evidence assessment, Front. Public Health 12 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1427752.
[17] C.A. Zamarripa, A.N. Dowd, H.J. Elder, L. Czaplicki, D. Tfayli, K. Rastogi, J. Thrul, J.C. Strickland, M.B. Moran, T.R. Spindle, A comprehensive review on oral nicotine pouches: Available scientific evidence and future research needs., Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 33 (2025) 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000755.
[18] G. Scherer, N. Pluym, M. Scherer, Oral health risks in adults who use electronic nicotine delivery systems and oral nicotine pouches: a critical review of the literature and qualitative synthesis of the available evidence, Harm Reduct J 21 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-024-01147-y.
Comments (0)
There are no comments for this article. Be the first one to leave a message!